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Heritage Published scholarship Founder-stated

Persian physicians catalogued plant drugs for centuries; modern trials support some uses, not others, and have exposed real hazards

The Persian medical tradition as scholarship: who wrote what, when, and how it was received; then how a historical description becomes a testable hypothesis.

Academy fundamentals: Course 1, History of botanical medicine

c. 1012Ibn Sīnā began the Canon of Medicine, five books with one on simple drugs
34 trialsof saffron pooled in a 2026 meta-analysis; self-rated, not clinician-rated, scores changed
−3.06 mmHgsystolic difference pooled across black seed trials, with very high heterogeneity
2011NTP first listed aristolochic acids as known human carcinogens

Scope. History and evidence only: heritage is not evidence of efficacy or safety, and it is not a supply plan. U.S. sanctions (31 CFR 560.201) prohibit importing Iranian-origin goods without OFAC authorization; see Legal status.

Why this page exists

The founder is of Persian heritage, and the company cites that tradition only through published scholarship

From text to trial: who wrote what, how the Canon traveled, three botanicals and what modern evidence foundPublished scholarship
From text to trial: Ibn Sīnā's Canon, al-Rāzī's al-Ḥāwī and Jorjānī's encyclopedia; the Latin translation in Toledo, the universities and the 1593 Rome edition; saffron, black seed and zarāvand; and what modern meta-analyses and the NTP foundTransmission and teaching of the CanonLatin Canon, ToledoTranslated by Gerard of Cremona(1114–1187) in the 12th centuryEuropean university curriculaSalerno, Montpellier, Bologna, Paris, intothe 17th centuryArabic Canon printed in Rome1593AuthorTextBotanical on this pageWhat modern evidence foundIbn Sīnā (Avicenna)c. 980–1037; born nearBukhara, died inHamadanCanon of MedicineBegun about 1012, completed inHamadan; Book II on simple drugsSaffron (Crocus sativus)Canon, Book II; al-Ḥāwī listssimilar propertiesMeta-analysis of 34 RCTs (2026)1,769 participants: self-rated depression and anxietyscores changed, clinician-rated did not; a 6-week RCT in51 healthy adults found no effect on its primary outcomeal-Rāzī (Rhazes)c. 854/865–925al-Ḥāwī (Liber Continens)al-Rāzī's compendium; inEuropean curricula into the 14thcenturyBlack seed (Nigellasativa)In the Canon, as a reviewreportsMeta-analysis of blood-pressure trials (2023)Systolic −3.06, diastolic −2.69 mmHg; very highheterogeneityJorjānī1042–1137Zakhīre-ye KhwārazmshāhīAbout 1112; considered the oldestmedical encyclopedia written inPersianZarāvand (Aristolochiarotunda)Described in 2023 ascommonly used in Iran'straditional medicineAristolochic acids: known human carcinogensNTP listing 2011; FDA warnings in 2000 and 2001; highdoses damaged rat kidneys
Every box and link restates the timeline, map and evidence ladder below, with their sources (Nasser et al. 2009; Mahmoudi et al. 2026; Amadieu et al. 2025; Kavyani et al. 2023; NTP Report on Carcinogens, 15th ed.). Scholarship and published trials, not EUTECNIQ findings.
Explanation, details and sources

Dr. Amir H. Mehrkesh, EUTECNIQ's founder, is of Persian heritage. Founder-stated, October 22, 2026 This page describes the medical tradition associated with that heritage as it appears in published history of medicine. It is offered as context only; it is neither a credential nor evidence for any ingredient or product. His professional record is on the Founder page.

Timeline

From the Sasanian period to the eighteenth century, Persian authors wrote some of the most widely read medical texts of their time

Dates follow the cited scholarship; where sources disagree, both dates are given. Names are transliterated as the cited authors write them.

Six authors and works on one axis, from Gondēšāpur to the eighteenth centuryPublished scholarship
Timeline from about 256 CE to the eighteenth century: Gondēšāpur, al-Rāzī, Ibn Sīnā and the Canon, Jorjānī, the Latin transmission through Toledo and the universities, and ʿAqīlī ShīrāzīLifespanUncertain or approximate rangeWork written, begun or printedLater use or reception765: first specific mention of the hospital, in a thirteenth-century sourceGondēšāpur founded, c. 256–260Šāpur I; southwestern Persia765: hospital first specifically mentionedin a thirteenth-century sourceal-Rāzī, c. 854/865–925al-Rāzī (Rhazes), c. 854/865–925al-Ḥāwī (Liber Continens); Liber ad Almansoremal-Ḥāwī in European curricula into the 14th centuryIbn Sīnā, c. 980–1037Canon begun about 1012; completed in HamadanIbn Sīnā (Avicenna), c. 980–1037Born near Bukhara; died in HamadanCanon of Medicine, begun about 1012Five books; Book II on simple drugsJorjānī, 1042–1137Zakhīre-ye Khwārazmshāhī, about 1112Jorjānī, 1042–1137Zakhīre-ye Khwārazmshāhī, c. 1112Considered the oldest medical encyclopedia written in PersianGerard of Cremona, 1114–11871593: Arabic edition of the Canon printed in RomeGerard of Cremona, 1114–1187Latin Canon, Toledo, 12th centuryArticella in university curricula up to the 17th century1593: Arabic Canon printed in RomeʿAqīlī Shīrāzī, 18th centuryMakhzan al-Adwiya, a Persian materia medica20040060080010001200140016001800Year CETimeline of Persian medical authors and works from about 256 CE to the eighteenth centuryc. 256–260Gondēšāpur foundedBy Šāpur I in southwestern Persia. Its hospital is firstspecifically mentioned for 765, in a thirteenth-centurysource.c. 854/865–925al-Rāzī (Rhazes)al-Ḥāwī (Liber Continens), used in European curriculainto the fourteenth century, and the Liber adAlmansorem.c. 980–1037Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna)Born near Bukhara, died in Hamadan. Began the Canon ofMedicine about 1012: five books, Book II on simple drugs.1042–1137JorjānīZakhīre-ye Khwārazmshāhī, about 1112, considered theoldest medical encyclopedia written in Persian.12th centuryLatin transmissionGerard of Cremona (1114–1187) translates the Canon inToledo. The Articella is used in universities up to theseventeenth century; an Arabic Canon is printed in Romein 1593.18th centuryʿAqīlī ShīrāzīMakhzan al-Adwiya, a Persian materia medica of singledrugs.
Richter-Bernburg, Encyclopaedia Iranica (2002, updated 2018); Shoja and Tubbs, J Anat 2007; Edriss et al., Am J Med Sci 2017; Compier, Med Hist 2012; Nasser, Tibi and Savage-Smith, J R Soc Med 2009; Shoja et al., Neurosurgery 2007; Moattar et al., Iran Red Crescent Med J 2013; Arráez-Aybar et al., Ann Anat 2015; Abdel-Halim, Urol Ann 2014; Mosaffa-Jahromi, Iran J Med Sci 2016; Parsa et al., Curr Drug Discov Technol 2019. Approximate dates are drawn as dashed ranges.
Where the Canon was completed, translated, printed and taughtPublished scholarship
Map of places named on this page: Gondēšāpur, Hamadan and Bukhara in the east; Toledo, Rome and the universities of Salerno, Montpellier, Bologna and Paris in the west; arrows show the Latin translation of the Canon and its use in university teachingThe Canon, translated into Latin in Toledo in the 12th centuryGondēšāpur · founded c. 256–260Gondēšāpurfounded c. 256–260Hamadan · Canon completed; Ibn Sīnā d. 1037HamadanCanon completed; Ibn Sīnā d. 1037Bukhara · Ibn Sīnā born nearby, c. 980BukharaIbn Sīnā born nearby, c. 980Toledo · Latin Canon, 12th centuryToledoLatin Canon, 12th centuryRome · Arabic Canon printed, 1593RomeArabic Canon printed, 1593SalernoSalernoMontpellierMontpellierBolognaBolognaParisParisUniversities using the Articella, with the Latin Canon, up to the 17th century: Salerno, Montpellier, Bologna, ParisPlace of writing, translation or printingUniversity using the ArticellaLatin translation of the Canon
Places named in the scholarship cited above; positions approximate. Gondēšāpur: ruins south of Šāhābād, 14 km southeast of Dezful (Shahbazi, Encyclopaedia Iranica). Land outlines: Natural Earth 1:110m via world-atlas (public domain), no borders drawn. A map of scholarship, not of sources of any material.
Text version of the timeline, with sources for each entry
  1. c. 256–260 CE

    Gondēšāpur

    The Sasanian king Šāpur I founded the city of Gondēšāpur in southwestern Persia, probably between about 256 and 260. Later Arabic sources describe a hospital and medical school there; the hospital is first specifically mentioned for the year 765, in a thirteenth-century source, and Encyclopaedia Iranica treats the traditional account of the school with caution. Some medical-history reviews call it the world's first university; the documentary and archaeological record does not settle that claim.

    Richter-Bernburg L. Gondēšāpur ii. History and medical school. Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2002 (updated 2018); Shoja MM, Tubbs RS. J Anat 2007;210:359–378; Daneshfard B, et al. J Family Med Prim Care 2022;11:4267–4272.

  2. c. 854/865–925

    al-Rāzī (Rhazes)

    Wrote al-Ḥāwī fī al-ṭibb (Latin Liber Continens), described as a 23-volume textbook used in European curricula into the fourteenth century, and the Liber ad Almansorem. Andreas Vesalius's first publication was a paraphrase of its ninth book. Birth years differ between sources: 865 in two reviews, 854 in a third.

    Edriss H, et al. Am J Med Sci 2017;354:223–229; Compier AH. Med Hist 2012;56:3–25; Shoja MM, Tubbs RS. J Anat 2007.

  3. c. 980–1037

    Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) and the Canon of Medicine

    Born about 980 near Bukhara and died in 1037 in Hamadan. He began the Canon (al-Qānūn fī al-ṭibb) about 1012 and completed it in Hamadan. It has five books; Book II covers simple drugs, arranged alphabetically after an essay on their general properties. The Canon also sets out seven rules for judging the effects of a drug.

    Nasser M, Tibi A, Savage-Smith E. Ibn Sina's Canon of Medicine: 11th century rules for assessing the effects of drugs. J R Soc Med 2009;102:78–80 (James Lind Library).

  4. c. 1112

    Jorjānī and the Treasure of the Khwarazm Shah

    Esmāʿil Jorjānī (1042–1137) wrote the Zakhīre-ye Khwārazmshāhī in about 1112. It is considered the oldest medical encyclopedia written in Persian.

    Shoja MM, et al. Neurosurgery 2007;61:1325–1330; Moattar F, et al. Iran Red Crescent Med J 2013;15:763–766.

  5. 12th century

    Latin transmission

    Gerard of Cremona (1114–1187) translated the Canon into Latin in Toledo. He also translated Ibn Sīnā's medical poem, which circulated with the Latin Canon and in the Articella, a collection used in the universities of Salerno, Montpellier, Bologna and Paris up to the seventeenth century. An Arabic edition of the Canon was printed in Rome in 1593.

    Arráez-Aybar LA, et al. Ann Anat 2015;198:21–33; Abdel-Halim RE. Urol Ann 2014;6:1–12; Nasser M, et al. 2009.

  6. 18th century

    ʿAqīlī Shīrāzī and the Makhzan al-Adwiya

    Hakim ʿAqīlī Shīrāzī wrote the Makhzan al-Adwiya, a Persian materia medica of single (simple) drugs that modern researchers still read alongside the Canon.

    Mosaffa-Jahromi M. Iran J Med Sci 2016;41(3 Suppl):S50; Parsa E, et al. Curr Drug Discov Technol 2019;16:400–405.

From text to test

A historical description is a hypothesis, and it has to survive identity, dose and safety checks before a trial can test it

The proposed sequence for using historical sources Management proposal. Agreement between an old text and a modern laboratory assay only justifies a test.

Six proposed steps from a historical text to a trial; identity and safety checks can end the sequenceManagement proposal
Six proposed steps from a historical text to a trial: read in context, fix the identity, record the preparation, screen safety first, state the hypothesis and test properly; identity and safety checks can end the sequenceRead in contextFix the identityRecord thepreparationScreen safety firstState the hypothesisTest properlyScholarly edition ortranslation; recordtext, book and entryHistorical names mapuncertainly to species;assign a POWOaccepted name andplant partPart, processing anddose in the text,compared withmodern productsCase reports,LiverTox andtoxicology data beforeany human exposureOne measurableoutcome in a definedpopulationRandomized,controlled andadequately poweredcan end herecan end hereAgreement between an old text and a modern laboratory assay only justifies a testSix proposed steps from a historical text to a properly designed trial1 · Read in contextScholarly edition or translation; record text, book andentry2 · Fix the identityHistorical names map uncertainly to species; assign aPOWO accepted name and plant partcan end here3 · Record the preparationPart, processing and dose in the text, compared withmodern products4 · Screen safety firstCase reports, LiverTox and toxicology data before anyhuman exposurecan end here5 · State the hypothesisOne measurable outcome in a defined population6 · Test properlyRandomized, controlled and adequately poweredAgreement between an old text and a modern laboratoryassay only justifies a test
Proposed sequence. POWO: Plants of the World Online, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. LiverTox: NIH database of drug-induced liver injury.
Text version of the six steps
  1. Read in contextUse a scholarly edition or translation and record which text, book and entry is cited.
  2. Fix the identityHistorical names map uncertainly to species. Assign a POWO accepted name and plant part, as in the atlas.
  3. Record the preparationPart, processing and dose described in the text, compared with modern products.
  4. Screen safety firstSearch case reports, LiverTox and toxicology data before any human exposure.
  5. State the hypothesisOne measurable outcome in a defined population.
  6. Test properlyRandomized, controlled and adequately powered; see Clinical research.
Three botanicals on the evidence ladder: one mixed, one small and inconsistent, one a documented hazardPublished scholarship
Saffron, black seed and zarāvand placed on the evidence ladder from traditional use to meta-analysis of randomized trials, with zarāvand flagged for a documented safety concernTraditional useIn vitroAnimalHuman PK orabsorptionHuman RCTMeta-analysis ofRCTsDocumentedsafety concernSaffronCrocus sativusMixed: self-ratedbenefit, clinician-ratednullCanon, Book II; al-ḤāwīCanon, Book II;al-Ḥāwī6-week RCT, 51 healthy adults: no effect on primary outcome6-week RCT, 51healthy adults: noeffect on primaryoutcome34 RCTs, 1,769 participants: BDI −4.39, BAI −5.06 (self-rated)34 RCTs, 1,769participants: BDI−4.39, BAI −5.06(self-rated)Black seedNigella sativaSmall effect,inconsistent trialsCanon, as a review reportsCanon, as a reviewreportsSystolic −3.06, diastolic −2.69 mmHg; very high heterogeneitySystolic −3.06,diastolic −2.69mmHg; very highheterogeneityZarāvandAristolochia rotundaDocumented safetyconcernDescribed in 2023 as commonly used in Iran's traditional medicineDescribed in 2023as commonly usedin Iran's traditionalmedicineHigh doses damaged rat kidneysHigh dosesdamaged ratkidneysNTP: aristolochic acids 'known to be human carcinogens', listed 2011; FDA warnings 2000, 2001NTP: aristolochicacids 'known to behumancarcinogens', listed2011; FDA warnings2000, 2001Three botanicals on the evidence ladderSaffronCrocus sativusTraditional useCanon, Book II; al-ḤāwīHuman RCT6-week RCT, 51 healthy adults: no effect on primaryoutcomeMeta-analysis of RCTs34 RCTs, 1,769 participants: BDI −4.39, BAI −5.06(self-rated)Mixed: self-rated benefit, clinician-rated nullBlack seedNigella sativaTraditional useCanon, as a review reportsMeta-analysis of RCTsSystolic −3.06, diastolic −2.69 mmHg; very highheterogeneitySmall effect, inconsistent trialsZarāvandAristolochia rotundaTraditional useDescribed in 2023 as commonly used in Iran's traditionalmedicineAnimalHigh doses damaged rat kidneysNTP: aristolochic acids 'known to be humancarcinogens', listed 2011; FDA warnings 2000, 2001Documented safety concern
Line: from what the historical sources record, as modern reviews report it, to the highest level of modern evidence on this page. Hosseinzadeh and Nassiri-Asl 2013; Mollazadeh et al. 2015; Mahmoudi et al., Nutr Neurosci 2026; Amadieu et al., Am J Clin Nutr 2025; Ahmad et al. 2013; Kavyani et al., Phytother Res 2023; Abolhassanzadeh et al., Heliyon 2023; National Toxicology Program, Report on Carcinogens, 15th ed.
Text version: what the historical sources record and what modern evidence shows, with sources
Key: Traditional useIn vitroAnimalHuman PK/absorptionHuman RCTMeta-analysis of RCTsNot assessedDocumented safety concern
BotanicalWhat the historical sources record, as modern reviews report itWhat modern human or toxicological evidence showsEvidence
Saffron
Crocus sativus		Ibn Sīnā describes saffron in Book II of the Canon, including antidepressant, hypnotic and anti-inflammatory uses; al-Rāzī's al-Ḥāwī lists similar properties. Hosseinzadeh H, Nassiri-Asl M. Phytother Res 2013;27:475–483; Mollazadeh H, et al. Iran J Basic Med Sci 2015;18:1153–1166.A GRADE-rated meta-analysis of 34 RCTs (1,769 participants) found lower self-rated depression (BDI −4.39) and anxiety (BAI −5.06) scores, but no effect on clinician-rated scales. A 6-week RCT in 51 healthy adults with subclinical symptoms found no effect on its primary outcome. Mahmoudi R, et al. Nutr Neurosci 2026;29:816–837; Amadieu C, et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2025;122:1625–1635.Meta-analysis of RCTs Mixed: self-rated benefit, clinician-rated null
Black seed
Nigella sativa		A review reports that Ibn Sīnā refers to black seed in the Canon as a seed that stimulates the body's energy. Ahmad A, et al. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2013;3:337–352.A meta-analysis of RCTs found systolic blood pressure 3.06 mmHg and diastolic 2.69 mmHg lower than control, with very high heterogeneity between trials. Kavyani Z, et al. Phytother Res 2023;37:3224–3238.Meta-analysis of RCTs Small effect, inconsistent trials
Zarāvand
Aristolochia rotunda		Described in 2023 as "a commonly used drug in Iran's traditional medicine and pharmacy" for respiratory complaints, back pain, headache and wounds. Abolhassanzadeh Z, et al. Heliyon 2023;9:e21848.High doses damaged rat kidneys in that study. Aristolochic acids are listed by the U.S. National Toxicology Program as "known to be human carcinogens", first listed in 2011; the evidence was first identified in Belgian patients with kidney disease who had taken herbal products contaminated with Aristolochia, and FDA issued warnings on botanical products containing aristolochic acid in 2000 and 2001. Abolhassanzadeh Z, et al. 2023; National Toxicology Program, Report on Carcinogens, 15th ed., Aristolochic Acids.Animal Documented safety concern
Four compounds behind the three examples, as rotating 3D modelsOne computed conformer each
  • Safranal, C10H14O (PubChem CID 61041): the major volatile component of saffron, responsible for its aroma.
  • Crocetin, C20H24O4 (CID 5281232): a carotenoid dicarboxylic acid found in the crocus flower.
  • Thymoquinone, C10H12O2 (CID 10281): a compound isolated from Nigella sativa.
  • Aristolochic acid I, C17H11NO7 (CID 2236): the most abundant of the aristolochic acids, which NTP lists as known human carcinogens.
Structures and formulas from PubChem; descriptions from ChEBI via PubChem, retrieved October 24, 2026. 3D coordinates: RDKit ETKDGv3 embedding and MMFF94 optimization, one gas-phase conformer each, not a crystal structure. Drag or use the arrow keys to rotate. A structure says nothing about efficacy or safe dose.
Research on saffron and black seed grew steeply after 2010; research on Aristolochia grew more slowlyEurope PMC counts
MEDLINE records per year whose title or abstract mention each botanical, 2000 to 2025: Saffron 18 in 2000 and 311 in 2025; Black seed 12 in 2000 and 344 in 2025; Aristolochia and aristolochic acids 39 in 2000 and 94 in 2025.0100200300400MEDLINE records per year200020052010201520202025SaffronBlack seedAristolochia and aristolochic acidsBlack seedSaffronAristolochia and aristolochicacids
Source: Europe PMC REST API, query TITLE_ABS:(terms) AND SRC:MED AND PUB_YEAR:year, run October 24, 2026. Counts of matching MEDLINE records measure research attention, not evidence of benefit.
Data table and search terms
MEDLINE records per year in Europe PMC (title or abstract), selected years; every year is in the chart
Botanical200020052010201520202025Search terms
Saffron183467141242311(saffron OR "Crocus sativus" OR crocin)
Black seed124185142248344("Nigella sativa" OR "black seed" OR "black cumin" OR thymoquinone)
Aristolochia and aristolochic acids3951719410894(Aristolochia OR "aristolochic acid" OR "aristolochic acids")
  • Agreement between a text and an assay≠clinical efficacy
  • Centuries of use≠demonstrated safety
  • A historical plant name≠a verified species

Academy: organ toxicity of botanicals, including aristolochic acid (Course 9) · Persia among the world's traditions (Course 1)

Ethics and law

Respecting the tradition means citing it accurately, honoring access and benefit-sharing law, and keeping sanctions out of the supply chain

Three obligations: honor access law, attribute the texts, keep sanctioned goods out of the supply chainRegulation Management proposal
Three obligations: access and benefit-sharing law, attribution of historical knowledge, and U.S. sanctions that prohibit importing goods of Iranian origin while excluding informational materialsAccess and benefit-sharingManagement proposalNagoya Protocol143 PartiesUnited StatesNot a Party to the Protocol, nor to the CBD, whichit signed on June 4, 1993Material collected in a provider countryThat country's own access law can still apply toresearch on itEUTECNIQ would ask counsel before any suchworkAttributionManagement proposalHistorical knowledgeCited to its texts, editions and translatorsA traditional preparationNot presented as an EUTECNIQ inventionA claim drawn from a textLabeled as traditional use, not as clinical evidenceSanctionsRegulation · 31 CFR 560.201Goods of Iranian originImport prohibited unless OFAC authorizes itIranian foodstuffsGeneral authorization ended August 6, 2018Information and informational materialsExcluded from the prohibition: scholarship istreated differently from goodsProcessing in another countryWhether it changes origin is a question forsanctions counselNot legal adviceThree obligations: access and benefit-sharing, attribution, and sanctionsAccess and benefit-sharingManagement proposalNagoya Protocol143 PartiesUnited StatesNot a Party to the Protocol, nor to the CBD, which it signedon June 4, 1993Material collected in a provider countryThat country's own access law can still apply to researchon itEUTECNIQ would ask counsel before any such workAttributionManagement proposalHistorical knowledgeCited to its texts, editions and translatorsA traditional preparationNot presented as an EUTECNIQ inventionA claim drawn from a textLabeled as traditional use, not as clinical evidenceSanctionsRegulation · 31 CFR 560.201Goods of Iranian originImport prohibited unless OFAC authorizes itIranian foodstuffsGeneral authorization ended August 6, 2018Information and informational materialsExcluded from the prohibition: scholarship is treateddifferently from goodsProcessing in another countryWhether it changes origin is a question for sanctionscounselNot legal advice
CBD Secretariat, list of Parties (accessed October 22, 2026); 31 CFR 560.201; 83 FR 30335 (June 28, 2018). See Legal status. Not legal advice.
Text version of the three obligations, with sources

Access and benefit-sharing

The Nagoya Protocol on access and benefit-sharing has 143 Parties. The United States is not a Party to it, nor to the Convention on Biological Diversity, which it signed on June 4, 1993. Provider countries' own access laws can still apply to research on material collected there, so EUTECNIQ would ask counsel before any such work. Management proposal

CBD Secretariat, list of Parties (accessed October 22, 2026).

Attribution

Historical knowledge would be cited to its texts, editions and translators. A traditional preparation would not be presented as an EUTECNIQ invention, and any claim drawn from a text would be labeled as traditional use, not as clinical evidence. Management proposal

Sanctions

U.S. sanctions (31 CFR 560.201) prohibit importing goods of Iranian origin unless OFAC authorizes it; the general authorization for Iranian foodstuffs ended on August 6, 2018. The same section excludes "information and informational materials" from the prohibition, so scholarship is treated differently from goods. Whether processing in another country changes origin is a question for sanctions counsel. This is not legal advice.

31 CFR 560.201; 83 FR 30335 (June 28, 2018). See Legal status.

Explanation, details and sources: sanctions

U.S. sanctions (31 CFR 560.201) prohibit importing goods of Iranian origin unless OFAC authorizes it; the general authorization for Iranian foodstuffs ended on August 6, 2018. Whether processing in another country changes origin is a question for sanctions counsel. See Legal status.

See how regional botanicals compare today

The botanical atlas sets 34 regional botanicals side by side, with evidence, safety, CITES and customs status for each.

Open the atlasAbout the founder